The Languages of Africa

The Languages of Africa

Cover of the first edition
Author	Joseph Greenberg
Country	United States
Language	English
Published	1963
Media type	Print

The Languages of Africa is a 1963 book of essays by Joseph Greenberg, in which he sets forth a genetic classification of African languages that, with some changes, continues to be the most commonly used one today. It is an expanded and extensively revised version of his 1955 work Studies in African Linguistic Classification, which was itself a compilation of eight articles which Greenberg had published in the Southwestern Journal of Anthropology between 1949 and 1954. It was first published in 1963 as Part II of the International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 29, No. 1; however, its second edition of 1966, in which it was published (by Indiana University, Bloomington: Mouton & Co., The Hague) as an independent work, is more commonly cited.

Its author describes it as based on three fundamentals of method:

• "The sole relevance in comparison of resemblances involving both sound and meaning in specific forms."
• "Mass comparison as against isolated comparisons between pairs of languages."
• "Only linguistic evidence is relevant in drawing conclusions about classification."

Innovations

Greenberg's Niger–Congo family was substantially foreshadowed by Westermann's "Western Sudanic", but he changed the subclassification, including Fulani (as West Atlantic) and the newly postulated Adamawa–Eastern, excluding Songhai, and classifying Bantu as merely a subfamily of Benue–Congo (previously termed "Semi-Bantu").

Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, and Cushitic had been generally accepted as members of a "Hamito-Semitic" family, while Chadic, Fulani, "Nilo-Hamitic", and Hottentot had all been controversially proposed as members. He accepted Chadic (while changing its membership), and rejected the other three, establishing to most linguists' satisfaction that they had been classified as "Hamitic" for purely typological reasons. This demonstration also led to the rejection (by him and by linguistics as a whole) of the term Hamitic as having no coherent meaning in historical linguistics; as a result, he renamed the newly reclassified family "Afroasiatic".

Following Schapera and rejecting Meinhof, he classified Hottentot as a member of the Central Khoisan languages. To Khoisan he also added the much more northerly Hadza (Hatsa) and Sandawe.

His most revolutionary step was the postulation of the Nilo-Saharan family. This is still controversial, because so far attempts to reconstruct this family have been unsuccessful, but it holds promise and is it widely used. Prior linguists had noticed an apparent relationship between the majority of the languages, but had never formally proposed a family. These languages – the Eastern Sudanic, Central Sudanic, Kunama, and Berta branches – Greenberg placed into a core group he called Chari–Nile, to which he added all the remaining unclassified languages of Africa that did not have noun classes. The distinction between Chari–Nile and the peripheral branches has since been abandoned. On a lower level, he placed "Nilo-Hamitic" firmly within Nilotic, following a suggestion of Köhler, and placed Eastern Sudanic on a firmer foundation.

Finally, he assigned the unclassified languages of the Nuba Hills of Kordofan to the Niger–Congo family, calling the result Congo–Kordofanian. The relationship has been accepted, with the exception of the "Tumtum" group, though the Kordofanian languages are no longer seen as being a primary branch, and the name 'Congo–Kordofanian' is no longer used.

Greenberg's four families became the dominant conception of African languages, though his subclassification did not fare as well. Niger−Congo and Afroasiatic are nearly universally accepted, with no significant support for Hamitic or the independence of Bantu. Nilo-Saharan is still considered provisional. Khoisan is now rejected by specialists, except as a term of convenience, though it may be retained in less specialized literature.

Classification

The book classifies Africa's languages into four stocks not presumed to be related to each other, as follows:

I. Congo–Kordofanian

I.A Niger–Congo

I.A.1 West Atlantic

I.A.1.a Northern: Wolof, Serer-Sin, Fulani, Serer-Non, Konyagi, Basari, Biafada, Badyara (Pajade), Dyola, Mandyak, Balante, Banyun, Nalu, Cobiana, Cassanga, Bidyogo

I.A.1.b Southern: Temne, Baga, Landoma, Kissi, Bulom, Limba, Gola

I.A.2 Mande

I.A.2.a Western

I.A.2.a.1 Malinke, Bambara, Dyula, Mandinka, Numu, Ligbi, Huela, Vai, Kono, Koranko, Khasonke Bobo

I.A.2.a.3 Mende, Loko, Gbandi, Loma, Kpelle (Guerze)

I.A.2.a.4 Susu, Dyalonke

I.A.2.a.5 Soninke, Bozo

I.A.2.a.6 Duun, Dzuun, Jo, Seenku (Sembla), Kpan, Banka

I.A.2.b Eastern

I.A.2.b.1 Mano, Dan (Gio), Guro (Kweni), Mwa, Nwa, Beng, Gban, Tura (Wen), Yaure

I.A.2.b.2 Samo, Bisa, Busa, Kyenga, Shanga

I.A.3 Voltaic

I.A.3.a Senoufo: Minianka, Tagba, Foro, Tagwana (Takponin), Dyimini, Nafana

I.A.3.b. Lobi-Dogon: Lobi, Dyan, Puguli, Gan, Gouin, Turuka, Doghosie, Doghosie-Fing, Kyan, Tara, Bwamu, Wara, Natioro, Dogon, Kulango

I.A.3.c Grusi: Awuna, Kasena, Nunuma, Lyele, Tamprusi, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved to group d), Degha, Siti, Kurumba (Fulse), Sisala

I.A.3.d Mossi, Dagomba, Kusasi, Nankanse, Talensi, Mamprusi, Wala, Dagari, Birifo, Namnam, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved from group c)

I.A.3.e Tem, Kabre, Delo, Chala

I.A.3.f Bargu (Bariba)

I.A.3.g Gurma, Tobote (Basari), Kasele (Chamba), Moba

I.A.3.x Dogon^[1]

I.A.4 Kwa

I.A.4.a Kru: Bete, Bakwe, Grebo, Bassa, De, Kru (Krawi)

I.A.4.b Avatime, Nyangbo, Tafi, Logba, Likpe, Ahlo, Akposo, Lefana, Bowili, Akpafu, Santrokofi, Adele, Kebu, Anyimere, Ewe, Aladian, Avikam, Gwa, Kyama, Akye, Ari, Abe, Adyukru, Akan (Twi, Anyi, Baule, Guang, Metyibo, Abure), Ga, Adangme

I.A.4.c Yoruba, Igala

I.A.4.d Nupe, Gbari, Igbira, Gade

I.A.4.e Bini, Ishan, Kukuruku, Sobo

I.A.4.f Idoma, Agatu, Iyala

I.A.4.g Ibo

I.A.4.h Ijo

I.A.5 Benue–Congo

I.A.5.A Plateau

I.A.5.A.1

I.A.5.A.1.a Kambari, Dukawa, Dakakari, Basa, Kamuku, Reshe

I.A.5.A.1.b Piti, Janji, Kurama, Chawai, Anaguta, Buji, Amap, Gure, Kahugu, Ribina, Butawa, Kudawa

I.A.5.A.2 Afusare, Irigwe, Katab, Kagoro, Kaje, Kachicheri, Morwa, Jaba, Kamantan, Kadara, Koro, Afo

I.A.5.A.3 Birom, Ganawuri (Aten)

I.A.5.A.4 Rukuba, Ninzam, Ayu, Mada, Kaninkwom

I.A.5.A.5 Eggon, Nungu, Yeskwa

I.A.5.A.6 Kaleri, Pyem, Pai

I.A.5.A.7 Yergam, Basherawa

I.A.5.B Jukunoid: Jukun, Kentu, Nyidu, Tigong, Eregba, Mbembe, Zumper (Kutev, Mbarike), Boritsu

I.A.5.C Cross-River

I.A.5.C.1 Boki, Gayi (Uge), Yakoro

I.A.5.C.2 Ibibio, Efik, Ogoni (Kana), Andoni, Akoiyang, Ododop, Korop

I.A.5.C.3 Akunakuna, Abine, Yako, Asiga, Ekuri, Ukelle, Okpoto-Mteze, Olulomo

I.A.5.D Bantoid: Tiv, Bitare, Batu, Ndoro, Mambila, Bute, Bantu

I.A.6 Adamawa–Eastern

I.A.6.A Adamawa

I.A.6.A.1 Tula, Dadiya, Waja, Cham, Kamu

I.A.6.A.2 Chamba, Donga, Lekon, Wom, Mumbake

I.A.6.A.3 Daka, Taram

I.A.6.A.4 Vere, Namshi, Kolbila, Pape, Sari, Sewe, Woko, Kotopo, Kutin, Durru

I.A.6.A.5 Mumuye, Kumba, Gengle, Teme, Waka, Yendang, Zinna

I.A.6.A.6 Dama, Mono, Mbere, Mundang, Yasing, Mangbei, Mbum, Kpere, Lakka, Dek

I.A.6.A.7 Yungur, Mboi, Libo, Roba

I.A.6.A.8 Kam

I.A.6.A.9 Jen, Munga

I.A.6.A.10 Longuda

I.A.6.A.11 Fali

I.A.6.A.12 Nimbari

I.A.6.A.13 Bua, Nielim, Koke

I.A.6.A.14 Masa

I.A.6.B Eastern

I.A.6.B.1 Gbaya, Manja, Mbaka

I.A.6.B.2 Banda

I.A.6.B.3 Ngbandi, Sango, Yakoma

I.A.6.B.4 Zande, Nzakara, Barambo, Pambia

I.A.6.B.5 Bwaka, Monjombo, Gbanziri, Mundu, Mayogo, Bangba

I.A.6.B.6 Ndogo, Bai, Bviri, Golo, Sere, Tagbo, Feroge, Indri, Mangaya, Togoyo

I.A.6.B.7 Amadi (Madyo, Ma)

I.A.6.B.8 Mondunga, Mba (Bamanga)

I.B Kordofanian

I.B.1 Koalib: Koalib, Kanderma, Heiban, Laro, Otoro, Kawama, Shwai, Tira, Moro, Fungor

I.B.2 Tegali: Tegali, Rashad, Tagoi, Tumale

I.B.3 Talodi: Talodi, Lafofa, Eliri, Masakin, Tacho, Lumun, El Amira

I.B.4 Tumtum: Tumtum, Tuleshi, Keiga, Karondi, Krongo, Miri, Kadugli, Katcha

I.B.5 Katla: Katla, Tima

II. Nilo-Saharan

II.A Songhai

II.B Saharan

II.B.a Kanuri, Kanembu

II.B.b Teda, Daza

II.B.c Zaghawa, Berti

II.C Maban: Maba, Runga, Mimi of Nachtigal, Mimi of Gaudefroy-Demombynes

II.D. Fur

II.E. Chari–Nile

II.E.1 Eastern Sudanic

II.E.1.1 Nubian

II.E.1.1.a Nile Nubian (Mahas-Fadidja and Kenuzi-Dongola)

II.E.1.1.b Kordofanian Nubian: Dair, Dilling, Gulfan, Garko, Kadero, Kundugr

II.E.1.1.c Midob

II.E.1.1.d Birked

II.E.1.2 Murle (Beir), Longarim, Didinga, Suri, Mekan, Murzu, Surma (including Tirma and Zulmanu), Masongo

II.E.1.3 Barea

II.E.1.4 Ingassana (Tabi)

II.E.1.5 Nyima, Afitti

II.E.1.6 Temein, Teis-um-Danab

II.E.1.7 Merarit, Tama, Sungor

II.E.1.8 Dagu of Darfur, Baygo, Sila, Dagu of Dar Dagu (Wadai), Dagu of Western Kordofan, Njalgulgule, Shatt, Liguri

II.E.1.9 Nilotic

II.E.1.9.a Western

II.E.1.9.a.1 Burun

II.E.1.9.a.2 Shilluk, Anuak, Acholi, Lango, Alur, Luo, Jur, Bor

II.E.1.9.a.3 Dinka, Nuer

II.E.1.9.b Eastern

II.E.1.9.b.1 Bari, Fajulu, Kakwa, Mondari

II.E.1.9.b.2a Jie, Dodoth, Karamojong, Teso, Topotha, Turkana

II.E.1.9.b.2b Masai

II.E.1.9.b.3 Southern: Nandi, Suk, Tatoga^[2]

II.E.1.10 Nyangiya, Teuso

II.E.2 Central Sudanic

II.E.2.1 Bongo, Baka, Morokodo, Beli, Gberi, Sara dialects (Madjinngay, Gulai, Mbai, Gamba, Kaba, Dendje, Laka), Vale, Nduka, Tana, Horo, Bagirmi, Kuka, Kenga, Disa, Bubalia

II.E.2.2 Kreish

II.E.2.3 Binga, Yulu, Kara [= Tar Gula]

II.E.2.4 Moru, Avukaya, Logo, Keliko, Lugbara, Madi

II.E.2.5 Mangbetu, Lombi, Popoi, Makere, Meje, Asua

II.E.2.6 Mangbutu, Mamvu, Lese, Mvuba, Efe

II.E.2.7 Lendu

II.E.3 Berta

II.E.4 Kunama

II.F Koman/Coman: Komo, Ganza, Uduk, Gule, Gumuz, Mao

III. Afroasiatic

III.A Semitic

III.B Egyptian

III.C Berber

III.D Cushitic

III.D.1 Northern Cushitic: Beja (Bedauye)

III.D.2 Central Cushitic: Bogo (Bilin), Kamir, Khamta, Awiya, Damot, Kemant, Kayla, Quara

III.D.3 Eastern Cushitic: Saho-Afar, Somali, Galla, Konso, Geleba, Marille, (Reshiat, Arbore), Gardula, Gidole, Gowaze, Burji, Sidamo, Darasa, Kambata, Alaba, Hadya, Tambaro, Mogogodo (added 1966)

III.D.4 Western Cushitic: Janjero, Wolamo, Zala, Gofa, Basketo, Baditu, Haruro, Zaysse, Chara, Gimira, Benesho, Nao, Kaba, Shako, She, Maji, Kafa, Garo, Mocha, Anfillo (Mao), Shinasha, Bako, Amar, Bana, Dime, Gayi, Kerre, Tsamai, Doko, Dollo

III.D.5 Southern Cushitic: Burungi (Mbulungu), Goroa (Fiome), Alawa (Uwassi), Iraqw, Mbugu, Sanye [= Dahalo], Ngomvia (added 1966)

III.E Chad

III.E.1

III.E.1.a Hausa, Gwandara

III.E.1.b Ngizim, Mober [= Kanuri, not Chadic], Auyokawa, Shirawa, Bede

III.E.1.c

III.E.1.c.i Warjawa, Afawa, Diryawa, Miyawa, Sirawa

III.E.1.c.ii Gezawa, Seiyawa, Barawa of Dass

III.E.1.d

III.E.1.d.i Bolewa, Karekare, Ngamo, Gerawa, Gerumawa, Kirifawa, Dera (Kanakuru), Tangale, Pia, Pero, Chongee, Maha (added 1966)

III.E.1.d.ii Angas, Ankwe, Bwol, Chip, Dimuk, Goram, Jorto, Kwolla, Miriam, Montol, Sura, Tal, Gerka

III.E.1.d.iii Ron

III.E.2 Kotoko group: Logone, Ngala [= Mpade?], Buduma, Kuri, Gulfei, Affade, Shoe, Kuseri

III.E.3 Bata–Margi group

III.E.3.a Bachama, Demsa, Gudo, Malabu, Njei (Kobochi, Nzangi, Zany), Zumu (Jimo), Holma, Kapsiki, Baza, Hiji, Gude (Cheke), Fali of Mubi, Fali of Kiria, Fali of Jilbu, Margi, Chibak, Kilba, Sukur, Vizik, Vemgo, Woga, Tur, Bura, Pabir, Podokwo

III.E.3.b Gabin, Hona, Tera, Jera, Hinna (Hina)

III.E.4

III.E.4.a Hina, Daba, Musgoi, Gauar

III.E.4.b Gisiga, Balda, Muturua, Mofu, Matakam

III.E.5 Gidder

III.E.6 Mandara, Gamergu

III.E.7 Musgu

III.E.8 Bana, Banana (Masa), Lame, Kulung

III.E.9

III.E.9.a Somrai, Tumak, Ndam, Miltu, Sarwa, Gulei [= Tumak?]

III.E.9.b Gabere, Chiri, Dormo, Nangire

III.E.9.c Sokoro (Bedanga), Barein

III.E.9.d Modgel

III.E.9.e Tuburi

III.E.9.f Mubi, Karbo, (added 1966: Jegu, Jonkor, Wadai-Birgid)

IV Khoisan

IV.A South African Khoisan

IV.A.1 Northern South African Khoisan

IV.A.2 Central South African Khoisan

IV.A.3 Southern South African Khoisan

IV.B Sandawe

IV.C Hatsa

Bibliography

• Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) The Languages of Africa. International journal of American linguistics, 29, 1, part 2.
• Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966) The Languages of Africa (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University.

References