Urban informatics

Urban informatics refers to the study of people creating, applying and using information and communication technology and data in the context of cities and urban environments. Various definitions are available, some provided in the Definitions section. Urban informatics is a trans-disciplinary field of research and practice that draws on three broad domains: people, place and technology.[1]

In addition to geographic data / spatial data, most common sources of data relevant to urban informatics can be divided into three broad categories: government data (census data, open data, etc.); personal data (social media, quantified self data, etc.), and; sensor data (transport, surveillance, CCTV, Internet of Things devices, etc.).[2][3]

Although first mentions of the term date back as early as 1987, urban informatics did not emerge as a notable field of research and practice until 2006 (see History section). Since then, the emergence and growing popularity of ubiquitous computing, open data and big data analytics, as well as smart cities contributed to a surge in interest in urban informatics, not just from academics but also from industry and city governments seeking to explore and apply the possibilities and opportunities of urban informatics.

Research and development work in urban informatics has targeted various concerns, issues, applications and domains, including public engagement and activism,[4] citizen science and participatory sensing,[5] environmental sustainability,[6] food and urban agriculture,[7] libraries and coworking spaces,[8] urban design and planning,[9][10][11][12] city safety and security,[13] transport and mobility.[14][15][16]

Definitions

Many definitions of urban informatics have been published and can be found online. The descriptions provided by Townsend in his foreword and by Foth in his preface to the "Handbook of Research on Urban Informatics"[17] emphasize two key aspects: (1) the new possibilities (including real-time data) for both citizens and city administrations afforded by ubiquitous computing, and (2) the convergence of physical and digital aspects of the city.

"Urban informatics is the study, design, and practice of urban experiences across different urban contexts that are created by new opportunities of real-time, ubiquitous technology and the augmentation that mediates the physical and digital layers of people networks and urban infrastructures."
— Foth, Choi, Satchell, 2011, Urban Informatics[1]

Although closely related, Foth differentiates urban informatics from the field of urban computing by suggesting that the former focusses more on the social and human implications of technology in cities (similar to the community and social emphases of how community informatics and social informatics are defined), and the latter focusses more on technology and computing.[17] Urban informatics emphasises the relationship between urbanity, as expressed through the many dimensions of urban life, and technology.

Later, with the increasing popularity of commercial opportunities under the label of smart city and big data, subsequent definitions became narrow and limited in defining urban informatics mainly as big data analytics for efficiency and productivity gains in city contexts – unless the arts and social sciences are added to the interdisciplinary mix.[18] This specialisation within urban informatics is sometimes referred to as 'data-driven, networked urbanism'[19] or urban science.[20] Three examples:

"The use of information and communications technology to better understand metropolitan needs, challenges, and opportunities."
— McKinsey on Society, 2012, Emerging Trends in Urban Informatics[21]
"Urban informatics uses data to better understand how cities work. This understanding can remedy a wide range of issues affecting the everyday lives of citizens and the long-term health and efficiency of cities – from morning commutes to emergency preparedness to air quality."
— Center for Urban Science and Progress, 2013, What is Urban Informatics?[22]
"Urban informatics, understood as the capture of the soundings produced by all of a city’s connected devices and the application of data from those devices analysed in various ways."
— Thrift, 2014, The Promise of Urban Informatics: Some Speculations[18]

This narrow view prominent in the new field of urban science was met with criticism by many scholars and commentators calling for a broader perspective that included not just the views of city officials but citizens. They suggested a shift in focus from the smart city to smart citizens.[4][23] Michael Batty included both aspects – the narrow focus on data analysis and the wider focus on citizen participation and engagement – in his definition of urban informatics:

"Urban Informatics is loosely defined as the application of computers to the functioning of cities. In its narrower focus, it pertains to the ways in which computers are being embedded into cities as hardware and as software so that the routine functions can be made more efficient, not only through automated responses but through the data that such computation generates which is central to policy analysis. This narrow focus is on control. In its wider focus, it is concerned with the use of computers and communications to enable services to be delivered across many domains and to enable populations to engage and interact in policy issues that require citizen participation."
— Batty, 2013, Urban Informatics and Big Data[24]

History

One of the first occurrences of the term can be found in Mark E. Hepworth's 1987 article "The Information City",[25] which mentions the term "urban informatics" on page 261, however, Hepworth's overall discussion is more concerned with the broader notion of "informatics planning." Considering the article pre-dates the advent of ubiquitous computing and urban computing, it does contain some visionary thoughts about major changes on the horizon brought about by information and communication technology and the impact on cities.

On 12 September 2003, The Feature published an article by Howard Rheingold titled, "Cities, Swarms, Cell Phones: The Birth of Urban Informatics."[26] In this article, Rheingold refers to Anthony Townsend as an "urban informatician and wireless activist."

The Urban Informatics Research Lab was founded at Queensland University of Technology in 2006, the first research group explicitly named to reflect its dedication to the study of urban informatics. The first edited book on the topic, the "Handbook of Research on Urban Informatics", published in 2009., brought together researchers and scholars from three broad domains: people, place, and technology, or; the social, the spatial, and the technical.

There were many precursors to this transdisciplinarity of "people, place, and technology."[1] From an architecture, planning and design background, there is the work of the late William J. Mitchell, Dean of the MIT School of Architecture and Planning, and author of the 1995 book "City of Bits: Space, Place, and the Infobahn."[27] Mitchell was influential in suggesting a profound relationship between place and technology at a time when mainstream interest was focused on the promise of the Information Superhighway and what Frances Cairncross called the "Death of Distance."[28] Rather than a decline in the significance of place through services such as telecommuting, distance education, e-commerce, the physical / tangible layers of the city started to mix with the digital layers of the internet and online communications. Aspects of this trend have been studied under the terms community informatics[29] and community network.[30]

One of the first texts that systematically examined the impact of information technologies on the spatial and social evolution of cities is Telecommunications and the City: Electronic Spaces, Urban Places,[31] by Stephen Graham and Simon Marvin. The relationship between cities and the internet was further expanded upon in a volume edited by Stephen Graham entitled "Cybercities Reader"[32] and by various authors in the 2006 book "Networked Neighbourhoods: The Connected Community in Context"[33] edited by Patrick Purcell. Furthermore, early contributions influencing the urban informatics discourse have been published in the Situated Technologies Pamphlet Series[34] that contains nine issues published by the Architectural League of New York between 2007 and 2012. Additionally, contributions from architecture, design and planning scholars are contained in the 2007 journal special issue on "Space, Sociality, and Pervasive Computing"[35] published in the journal Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 34(3), guest edited by the late Bharat Dave, as well as in the 2008 book "Augmented Urban Spaces: Articulating the Physical and Electronic City"[36] edited by Alessandro Aurigi and Fiorella De Cindio, based on contributions to the Digital Cities 4 workshop held in conjunction with the Communities and Technologies (C&T) conference 2005 in Milan, Italy.

The first prominent and explicit use of the term urban informatics in the sociology and media studies literature appears in the 2007 special issue "Urban Informatics: Software, Cities and the New Cartographies of Knowing Capitalism"[37] published in the journal Information, Communication & Society, 10(6), guest edited by Ellison, Burrows, & Parker. Later on, in 2013, Burrows and Beer argued that the socio-technical transformations described by research studies conducted in the field of urban informatics give reason for sociologists more broadly to not only question epistemological and methodological norms and practices but also to rethink spatial assumptions.[38]

In computer science, the sub-domains of human-computer interaction, ubiquitous computing, and urban computing, provided early contributions that influenced the emerging field of urban informatics. Examples include the Digital Cities workshop series (see below), Greenfield’s 2006 book "Everyware: The Dawning Age of Ubiquitous Computing"[39] as well as the 2006 special issue "Urban Computing: Navigating Space and Context"[40] published in the IEEE journal Computer, 39(9), guest edited by Shklovski & Chang, and the 2007 special issue "Urban Computing"[41] published in the IEEE journal Pervasive Computing, 6(3), guest edited by Kindberg, Chalmers, & Paulos.

Digital Cities Workshop Series

The Digital Cities Workshop Series started in 1999[42] and is the longest running academic workshop series that has focused on, and profoundly influenced the field of urban informatics.[4] The first two workshops in 1999 and 2001 were both held in Kyoto, Japan, with subsequent workshops since 2003 held in conjunction with the biennial International Conference on Communities and Technologies (C&T).

Each Digital Cities workshop proceedings have become the basis for key anthologies listed below, which in turn have also been formative to a diverse set of emerging fields, including urban informatics, urban computing, smart cities, pervasive computing, internet of things, media architecture, urban interaction design, and urban science.

Workshop Location Resulting Anthology
Digital Cities 1 Kyoto, Japan, 1999 Ishida, T., & Isbister, K. (Eds.). (2000). Digital Cities: Technologies, Experiences, and Future Perspectives (Lecture Notes in Computer Science No. 1765). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.[42]
Digital Cities 2 Kyoto, Japan, 2001 Tanabe, M., van den Besselaar, P., & Ishida, T. (Eds.) (2002). Digital Cities 2: Computational and Sociological Approaches (Lecture Notes in Computer Science No. 2362). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.[43]
Digital Cities 3 C&T 2003, Amsterdam, NL Van den Besselaar, P., & Koizumi, S. (Eds.) (2005). Digital Cities 3: Information Technologies for Social Capital (Lecture Notes in Computer Science No. 3081). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.[44]
Digital Cities 4 C&T 2005, Milan, Italy Aurigi, A., & De Cindio, F. (Eds.) (2008). Augmented Urban Spaces: Articulating the Physical and Electronic City. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.[36]
Digital Cities 5 C&T 2007, Michigan, U.S. Foth, M. (Ed.) (2009). Handbook of Research on Urban Informatics: The Practice and Promise of the Real-Time City. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference, IGI Global.[17]
Digital Cities 6 C&T 2009, PennState, U.S. Foth, M., Forlano, L., Satchell, C., & Gibbs, M. (Eds.) (2011). From Social Butterfly to Engaged Citizen: Urban Informatics, Social Media, Ubiquitous Computing, and Mobile Technology to Support Citizen Engagement. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.[45]
Digital Cities 7 C&T 2011, Brisbane, Australia Foth, M., Brynskov, M., & Ojala, T. (Eds.) (2015). Citizen's Right to the Digital City: Urban Interfaces, Activism, and Placemaking. Singapore: Springer.[4]
Digital Cities 8 C&T 2013, Munich, Germany Foth, M., Brynskov, M., & Ojala, T. (Eds.) (2015). Citizen's Right to the Digital City: Urban Interfaces, Activism, and Placemaking. Singapore: Springer.[4]
Digital Cities 9 C&T 2015, Limerick, Ireland de Lange, M., & de Waal, M. (2017, forthcoming). The Hackable City: Digital Media & Collaborative Citymaking in the Network Society.
Digital Cities 10 C&T 2017, Troyes, France TBC

Research centres

A July 2015 report[46] published by the New York University's Rudin Center for Transportation Policy and Management and the Data & Society Research Institute contains a timeline of research centres that focus on urban informatics and related research. Additional entries shown in the table below have been sourced from an additional timeline compiled by the UrbanIxD (Urban Interaction Design) project. This timeline was publicly displayed as part of the City | Data | Future exhibition[47] at the Media Architecture Biennale 2014 in Aarhus, Denmark, on 19 November 2014.

Year Research Centres
1995 UCL Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London
2003 Smart Cities Program, MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2004 MIT Senseable City Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2005 Urban Scaling Working Group, Santa Fee Institute
2006 Urban Informatics Research Lab, Queensland University of Technology
2007 The Mobile City, The Netherlands
2010 Future Cities Laboratory, ETH Zürich
2011 Boston Area Research Initiative, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University
2012 Center for Urban Science and Progress, New York University
2012 Intel Collaborative Research Institute for Sustainable and Connected Cities (ICRI Cities), Imperial College and University College London
2012 Urban Center for Computation and Data, University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory
2013 MediaLab-Prado, Madrid
2013 Programmable City Project, Maynooth University
2013 Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions, TU Delft
2014 Warwick Institute for the Science of Cities, University of Warwick
2014 Urban Big Data Centre, University of Glasgow
2014 City Sciences, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
2014 Metro21, Carnegie Mellon University
2015 Urban Informatics Program, Northeastern University

Methods

The diverse range of people, groups and organisations involved in urban informatics is reflective of the diversity of methods being used in its pursuit and practice. As a result, urban informatics borrows from a wide range of methodologies across the social sciences, humanities, arts, design, architecture, planning (including geographic information systems), and technology (in particular computer science, pervasive computing, and ubiquitous computing), and applies those to the urban domain. Examples include:

Conferences and workshops

Further reading

Since Foth's 2009 "Handbook of Research on Urban Informatics",[17] a number of books and special issues of academic journals have been published on the topic, which further demonstrate the increasing significance and notability of the field of urban informatics. Key works include:

Year Publication
2011 Shepard, M. (Ed.) (2011). Sentient City: Ubiquitous Computing, Architecture, and the Future of Urban Space. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.[53]
2011 Foth, M., Forlano, L., Satchell, C., & Gibbs, M. (Eds.) (2011). From Social Butterfly to Engaged Citizen: Urban Informatics, Social Media, Ubiquitous Computing, and Mobile Technology to Support Citizen Engagement. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.[45]
2011 Kitchin, R., & Dodge, M. (2011). Code/Space: Software and Everyday Life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.[2]
2011 Gordon, E., & de Souza e Silva, A. (2011). Net Locality: Why Location Matters in a Networked World. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.[54]
2011 Hearn, G., Foth, M., & Stevenson, T. (Eds.). (2011). Community Engagement for Sustainable Urban Futures. Special issue of Futures, 43(4).[55]
2012 Foth, M., Rittenbruch, M., Robinson, R., & Viller, S. (Eds.) (2012). Street Computing. Special issue of the Journal of Urban Technology, 19(2).[3]
2013 Townsend, A. (2013). Smart Cities: Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.[56]
2013 McCullough, M. (2013). Ambient Commons: Attention in the Age of Embodied Information. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.[57]
2013 Greenfield, A. (2013). Against the Smart City. New York, NY: Do Projects.[58]
2014 Foth, M., Rittenbruch, M., Robinson, R., & Viller, S. (Eds.) (2014). Street Computing: Urban Informatics and City Interfaces. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.[59]
2014 de Waal, M. (2014). The City as Interface: How New Media are Changing the City. Rotterdam, NL: NAi010 Publisher.[60]
2014 Unsworth, K., Forte, A., & Dilworth, R. (Eds.) (2014). Urban Informatics: The Role of Citizen Participation in Policy Making. Special issue of the Journal of Urban Technology, 21(4).[61]
2014 Horelli, L., & Sadoway, D. (Eds.) (2014). Community Informatics and Urban Planning. Special issue of the Journal of Community Informatics, 10(3).[62]
2014 Brynskov, M., et al. (2014). Urban Interaction Design: Towards City Making. Amsterdam, NL: UrbanIxD.[63]
2015 Houghton, K., & Choi, J. H.-j. (Eds.) (2015). Urban Acupuncture. Special issue of the Journal of Urban Technology, 22(3).[64]
2015 Kukka, H., Foth, M., & Dey, A. K. (Eds.) (2015). Transdisciplinary Approaches to Urban Computing. Special issue of the International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 81.[65]
2015 Foth, M., Brynskov, M., & Ojala, T. (Eds.) (2015). Citizen's Right to the Digital City: Urban Interfaces, Activism, and Placemaking. Singapore: Springer.[4]
2015 Willis, K. S. (2015). Netspaces: Space and Place in a Networked World. London, UK: Routledge.[66]
2016 Katz, V. S., & Hampton, K. N. (Eds.) (2016). Communication in City and Community: From the Chicago School to Digital Technology. Special issue of the American Behavioral Scientist, 60(1).[67]
2016 Ratti, C., & Claudel, M. (2016). The City of Tomorrow: Sensors, Networks, Hackers, and the Future of Urban Life. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.[68]
2017 Thakuriah, P., Tilahun, N., & Zellner, M. (Eds.) (2017, in press). Seeing Cities Through Big Data: Research, Methods and Applications in Urban Informatics. London, UK: Springer.[69]

Current calls for special issues of academic journals include:

Blogs

A number of influential thinkers and commentators maintain web blogs on topics relevant to the field of urban informatics, including most notably:

Relation to other research fields

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 Foth, Marcus; Choi, Jaz Hee-jeong; Satchell, Christine (2011). Urban Informatics. Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW). Hangzhou, China. pp. 1–8. doi:10.1145/1958824.1958826.
  2. 1 2 Kitchin, Rob; Dodge, Martin (2011). Code/Space: Software and Everyday Life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262042482.
  3. 1 2 Robinson, Ricky; Rittenbruch, Markus; Foth, Marcus; Filonik, Daniel; Viller, Stephen (April 2012). "Street Computing: Towards an Integrated Open Data Application Programming Interface (API) for Cities". Journal of Urban Technology. 19 (2): 1–23. doi:10.1080/10630732.2012.698064.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Foth, Marcus; Brynskov, Martin; Ojala, Timo (2015). Citizen's Right to the Digital City: Urban Interfaces, Activism, and Placemaking. Singapore: Springer. ISBN 9789812879172.
  5. ↑ Paulos, Eric; Honicky, RJ; Hooker, Ben (2009). "Citizen Science: Enabling Participatory Urbanism". In Foth, Marcus. Handbook of Research on Urban Informatics: The Practice and Promise of the Real-Time City. Hershey, PA: IGI. pp. 414–436. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-152-0.ch028. ISBN 978-1-60566-152-0.
  6. ↑ Foth, Marcus; Paulos, Eric; Satchell, Christine; Dourish, Paul (January 2009). "Pervasive Computing and Environmental Sustainability: Two Conference Workshops". IEEE Pervasive Computing. 8 (1): 78–81. doi:10.1109/MPRV.2009.13.
  7. ↑ Choi, Jaz Hee-jeong; Foth, Marcus; Hearn, Greg (2014). Eat, Cook, Grow: Mixing Human-Computer Interactions with Human-Food Interactions. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02685-7.
  8. ↑ Bilandzic, Mark; Foth, Marcus (2017). "Designing hubs for connected learning: social, spatial and technological insights from Coworking, Hackerspaces and Meetup groups". In Carvalho, Lucila; Goodyear, Peter; de Laat, Maarten. Place-Based Spaces for Networked Learning. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-85086-6.
  9. ↑ Foth, Marcus; Bajracharya, Bhishna; Brown, Ross; Hearn, Greg (June 2009). "The Second Life of urban planning? Using NeoGeography tools for community engagement". Journal of Location Based Services. 3 (2): 97–117. doi:10.1080/17489720903150016.
  10. ↑ Mallan, Kerry; Foth, Marcus; Greenaway, Ruth; Young, Greg T. (24 August 2010). "Serious Playground: Using Second Life to Engage High School Students in Urban Planning". Learning, Media and Technology. 35 (2): 203–225. doi:10.1080/17439884.2010.494432.
  11. ↑ Houghton, Kirralie; Miller, Evonne; Foth, Marcus (2014). "Integrating ICT into the planning process: impacts, opportunities and challenges". Australian Planner. 51 (1): 24–33. doi:10.1080/07293682.2013.770771.
  12. ↑ Fredericks, Joel; Foth, Marcus (September 2013). "Augmenting public participation: Enhancing planning outcomes through the use of social media and web 2.0". Australian Planner. 50 (3): 244–256. doi:10.1080/07293682.2012.748083.
  13. ↑ Satchell, Christine; Foth, Marcus (November 2011). "Darkness and Disaster in the City". IEEE Internet Computing. 15 (6): 90–93. doi:10.1109/MIC.2011.149.
  14. ↑ Foth, Marcus; Schroeter, Ronald; Ti, Jimmy (2013). "Opportunities of Public Transport Experience Enhancements with Mobile Services and Urban Screens". International Journal of Ambient Computing and Intelligence. 5 (1): 1–18. doi:10.4018/jaci.2013010101.
  15. ↑ Camacho, Tiago; Foth, Marcus; Rakotonirainy, Andry (2013). "Pervasive Technology and Public Transport: Opportunities Beyond Telematics". IEEE Pervasive Computing. 12 (1): 18–25. doi:10.1109/MPRV.2012.61.
  16. ↑ Rakotonirainy, Andry; Schroeter, Ronald; Soro, Alessandro (October 2014). "Three social car visions to improve driver behaviour". Pervasive and Mobile Computing. 14: 147–160. doi:10.1016/j.pmcj.2014.06.004.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Foth, Marcus (2009). Handbook of Research on Urban Informatics: The Practice and Promise of the Real-Time City. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. ISBN 978-1-60566-152-0.
  18. 1 2 Thrift, Nigel (2014). "The Promise of Urban Informatics: Some Speculations". Environment and Planning A. 46 (6): 1263–1266. doi:10.1068/a472c.
  19. ↑ Kitchin, Rob (2015). "Data-Driven, Networked Urbanism". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2641802.
  20. 1 2 Batty, Michael (2013). The New Science of Cities. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262019521.
  21. ↑ Bays, Jonathan; Callanan, Laura (2012). "Emerging Trends in Urban Informatics" (PDF). McKinsey on Society. McKinsey & Company. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  22. ↑ NYU Center for Urban Science and Progress (25 October 2013). "What is Urban Informatics?". Urban Informatics. NYU Center for Urban Science and Progress. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  23. ↑ Hemment, Drew; Townsend, Anthony (2013). Smart Citizens (PDF). Manchester, UK: FutureEverything. ISBN 978-0-9568958-7-5. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
  24. ↑ Batty, Michael. "Urban Informatics and Big Data" (PDF). Smart Cities. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  25. ↑ Hepworth, Mark E. (August 1987). "The Information City". Cities. 4 (3): 253–262. doi:10.1016/0264-2751(87)90033-3.
  26. ↑ Rheingold, Howard. "Cities, Swarms, Cell Phones: The Birth of Urban Informatics". www.thefeaturearchives.com. The Feature. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  27. ↑ Mitchell, William J. (1995). City of Bits: Space, Place, and the Infobahn. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13309-8.
  28. ↑ Cairncross, Frances (1997). The Death of Distance: How the Communications Revolution will Change our Lives. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 978-0-87584-806-8.
  29. ↑ Gurstein, Michael (2000). Community Informatics: Enabling Communities with Information and Communications Technologies. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-878289-69-8.
  30. ↑ Schuler, Douglas (1996). Community Networks: New Community Networks: Wired for Change. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-59553-6.
  31. ↑ Graham, Stephen; Marvin, Simon (1995). Telecommunications and the City: Electronic Spaces, Urban Places. London: Routledge.
  32. ↑ Graham, Stephen (2004). The Cybercities Reader. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-27956-7.
  33. ↑ Purcell, Patrick (2006). Networked Neighbourhoods: The Connected Community in Context. London: Springer. ISBN 978-1-84628-267-6.
  34. ↑ Architectural League of New York. "Situated Technologies Pamphlet Series". Situated Technologies. Architectural League of New York. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  35. ↑ Dave, Bharat (2007). "Space, Sociality, and Pervasive Computing". Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 34 (3): 381–382. doi:10.1068/b3403ed.
  36. 1 2 Aurigi, Alessandro; De Cindio, Fiorella (2008). Augmented Urban Spaces: Articulating the Physical and Electronic City. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-7149-7.
  37. ↑ Ellison, Nick; Burrows, Roger; Parker, Simon (December 2007). "Urban Informatics: Software, Cities and the New Cartographies of Knowing Capitalism". Information, Communication & Society. 10 (6): 785–788. doi:10.1080/13691180701750975.
  38. ↑ Burrows, Roger; Beer, David (2013). "Rethinking Space: Urban Informatics and the Sociological Imagination". In Orton-Johnson, Kate; Prior, Nick. Digital Sociology: Critical Perspectives. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 61–78. doi:10.1057/9781137297792_5. ISBN 978-0-230-22283-0.
  39. ↑ Greenfield, Adam (2006). Everyware: The Dawning Age of Ubiquitous Computing. San Francisco, US: New Riders. ISBN 0321384016.
  40. ↑ Shklovski, Irina; Chang, M. F. (September 2006). "Urban Computing: Navigating Space and Context". Computer. 39 (9): 36–37. doi:10.1109/MC.2006.308.
  41. ↑ Kindberg, Tim; Chalmers, Matthew; Paulos, Eric (July 2007). "Urban Computing". IEEE Pervasive Computing. 6 (3): 18–20. doi:10.1109/MPRV.2007.57.
  42. 1 2 Ishida, Toru; Isbister, Katherine (2000). Digital Cities Technologies, Experiences, and Future Perspectives. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 1765. Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007/3-540-46422-0. ISBN 978-3-540-67265-4. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  43. ↑ Tanabe, Makoto; van den Besselaar, Peter; Ishida, Toru (2002). Digital Cities II: Computational and Sociological Approaches Second Kyoto Workshop on Digital Cities Kyoto, Japan, October 18–20, 2001 Revised Papers. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 2362. New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/3-540-45636-8. ISBN 978-3-540-43963-9. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  44. ↑ van den Besselaar, Peter; Koizumi, Satoshi (2005). Digital Cities III. Information Technologies for Social Capital: Cross-cultural Perspectives: Third International Digital Cities Workshop, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, September 18-19, 2003, Revised Selected Papers. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 3081. Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007/b107136. ISBN 978-3-540-25971-8. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  45. 1 2 Foth, Marcus; Forlano, Laura; Satchell, Christine; Gibbs, Martin (2011). From Social Butterfly to Engaged Citizen: Urban Informatics, Social Media, Ubiquitous Computing, and Mobile Technology to Support Citizen Engagement. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01651-3.
  46. ↑ Townsend, Anthony (July 2015). Making Sense of the Science of Cities | Cities of Data. New York, NY: Data & Society Research Institute. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  47. ↑ Mitrović, Ivica; Smyth, Michael; Helgason, Ingi (2014). City Data Future: Interactions in Hybrid Urban Space (PDF). UrbanIxD: Designing Human Interactions in the Networked City. ISBN 978-0-9562169-4-6. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  48. ↑ Hearn, Greg; Tacchi, Jo; Foth, Marcus; Lennie, June (2009). Action Research and New Media: Concepts, Methods, and Cases. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. ISBN 978-1-57273-866-9.
  49. ↑ Foth, Marcus; Brynskov, Martin (2016). "Participatory Action Research for Civic Engagement". In Gordon, Eric; Mihailidis, Paul. Civic Media: Technology, Design, Practice. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. pp. 563–580. ISBN 978-0-262-03427-2. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  50. ↑ Bilandzic, Mark; Venable, John (2011). "Towards Participatory Action Design Research: Adapting Action Research and Design Science Research Methods for Urban Informatics". Journal of Community Informatics. 7 (3). Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  51. ↑ Satchell, Christine (1 November 2008). "Cultural Theory and Design: Identifying Trends by Looking at the Action in the Periphery". ACM interactions. 15 (6): 23. doi:10.1145/1409040.1409046.
  52. ↑ Moshfeghi, Yashar (2015). Proceedings of the ACM First International Workshop on Understanding the City with Urban Informatics. New York, NY: ACM. ISBN 978-1-4503-3786-1. Retrieved 15 Sep 2016.
  53. ↑ Shepard, Mark (2011). Sentient City: Ubiquitous Computing, Architecture, and the Future of Urban Space. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51586-3.
  54. ↑ Gordon, Eric; Silva, Adriana de Souza e (2011). Net Locality: Why Location Matters in a Networked World. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8060-3.
  55. ↑ Hearn, Greg; Foth, Marcus; Stevenson, Tony (May 2011). "Community Engagement for Sustainable Urban Futures". Futures. 43 (4): 357–360. doi:10.1016/j.futures.2011.01.002.
  56. ↑ Townsend, Anthony M. (2013). Smart Cities: Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-393-08287-6.
  57. ↑ McCullough, Malcolm (2013). Ambient Commons: Attention in the Age of Embodied Information. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01880-7.
  58. ↑ Greenfield, Adam (2013). Against the Smart City. New York, NY: Do Projects. ISBN 978-0-9824383-1-2. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
  59. ↑ Foth, Marcus; Rittenbruch, Markus; Robinson, Ricky; Viller, Stephen (2013). Street Computing: Urban Informatics and City Interfaces. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-84336-2.
  60. ↑ de Waal, Martijn (2014). The City as Interface: How New Media Are Changing the City. Rotterdam, NL: NAi010 Publisher. ISBN 9789462080508. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
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  63. ↑ Brynskov, Martin (2014). Urban Interaction Design: Towards City Making (PDF). Amsterdam, NL: UrbanIxD. ISBN 978-0-9562169-2-2. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
  64. ↑ Houghton, Kirralie; Choi, Jaz Hee-jeong; Lugmayr, Artur (2 October 2015). "Urban Acupuncture". Journal of Urban Technology. 22 (3): 1–2. doi:10.1080/10630732.2015.1087684.
  65. ↑ Kukka, Hannu; Foth, Marcus; Dey, Anind K. (September 2015). "Transdisciplinary Approaches to Urban Computing". International Journal of Human-Computer Studies. 81: 1–3. doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2015.05.003.
  66. ↑ Willis, Katharine S. (2015). Netspaces: Space and Place in a Networked World. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781472438621.
  67. ↑ Katz, Vikki S.; Hampton, Keith N. (January 2016). "Communication in City and Community: From the Chicago School to Digital Technology". American Behavioral Scientist. 60 (1): 3–7. doi:10.1177/0002764215601708.
  68. ↑ Ratti, Carlo; Claudel, Matthew (2016). The City of Tomorrow: Sensors, Networks, Hackers, and the Future of Urban Life. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-20480-3.
  69. ↑ Thakuriah, Piyushimita; Tilahun, Nebiyou; Zellner, Moira (2017). Seeing Cities Through Big Data: Research, Methods and Applications in Urban Informatics. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-40900-9. Retrieved 27 July 2016.

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