Kamma (caste)

Kamma
Religions Hinduism
Languages
Country
  • India
  • United States
Region
  • Andhra Pradesh
  • Telangana
  • Tamil Nadu
  • Karnataka
Status Forward caste

Kamma (Telugu: కమ్మ) or Kammavaru or Kammavar Naidu is a social group (caste) found largely in the southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. They sometimes append the title Naidu[1] They are classified as a forward caste.[2]. The Kamma population was 795,732 in the year 1881[3]. According to 1921census Kammas constituted about 4.0% of Andhra Pradesh population and in significant numbers in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka[4][5][6]. A sizeable number of Kammas have emigrated to the United States.[7].

Origin

The etymology of the word "Kamma" is as follows. The the people who lived in the Krishna river valley, where Buddhism prevailed during 3rd Century BC up to 7th Century AD, got the name from the Theravada Buddhist concept of Kamma (in Pali) or Karma (in Sanskrit).[8] This region was once known as Kammarashtram / Kammarattam / Kammanadu, which was under the control of the Pallavas, Eastern Chalukyas and Cholas.[9][10][11] Inscriptions mentioning Kammanadu are available since 3rd century C.E.[12][13][14][15][16][17].

Identity

The division of peasant warrior class of Kammanadu of Andhra Desa into many castes and their consolidation commenced during the time of Kakatiya king Rudra I (1158-1195 CE). According to Velugotivari Vamsavali and Padmanayakacharitra, texts written in medieval times, farmers (Kapus) became Kammas and Velamas[18][19]. In medieval times the term 'Kapu' meant a farmer or protector.

"...kaalachoditamuna kaakateevarugolchi kaapulella velama kammalairi". Telugu: "....కాలచోదితమున కాకతీవరుగొల్చి కాపులెల్ల వెలమ, కమ్మలైరి", which means that ".. because of the vicissitudes of time all Kapus (farmers/protectors) were patronized by Kakatiya king and became Kammas and Velamas.

Famous Telugu poet Srinatha (14th century CE), while describing the social divisions during his time, categorized Padmanayaka, Velama and Kamma in his Bhimeswara Puranamu.[20] He says ".....andu padmanayakulana, velamalana, kammalana trimarga gangapravahambulumbole gotrambulanniyeni jagatpavitrambulai pravahimpachunda"; (Telugu: .....అందు పద్మనాయకులన, వెలమలన, కమ్మలన త్రిమర్గ గంగాప్రవాహంబులుంబోలె గొత్రంబులన్నియెని జగత్పవిత్రంబులై ప్రవహింపచుండ).

During the time of Kakatiya King Ganapati, Badabanala Bhatta prescribed Surnames and Gothras of Kammas and Velamas[21]. However, the affiliation of Kammas as a caste to the ruling dynasties could not be ascribed till 11th century. Traces of evidence were found in the inscriptions of Telugu Cholas/Chodas of Velanadu starting from Gonka I (1075-1115 CE), found in many places in Kammanadu. The Dharanikota kings (1130-1251 CE) who belonged to Kota clan of Kammas and Durjaya ancestry had marital alliances with Telugu Cholas[22][23]. However, there was some controversy regarding the origin of Kota kings[24]. Kota kings married the women from Kakatiya dynasty (E.g., Kota Betharaja married Ganapamba, daughter of Ganapati Deva). The Kakatiya Ganapati Deva married the sisters of Jayapa Senani, a warrior hailing from Diviseema.[25] Jayapa Nayudu is also well known for his contributions to the field of Indian dance (1231 CE)[26] and was the head of the elephant corps in the Kakatiya army. Around this time many warriors from Kammanadu joined the forces of the Kakatiya dynasty. In Warangal region Kammas are called Kamma Kapus.[27].

The kings and military persona of Kammanadu started using the title Nayaka/Nayakudu from 10th century onwards as observed in many inscriptions.[28] There are about 1200 Kamma surnames (Intiperu) which are discernible from this time. The surnames and Gothras of Kammas and Velamas were catalogued by Badabanala Bhatta in 1068 CE as mentioned earlier[29] The names of the ancestral villages were adopted as Gothras. This shows that the ancestors of Kammas and Velamas were either Buddhists or Jains who did not follow Gothra system and that both the social groups had a common history. The historical reasons for the dichotomy of the two groups are not known, although many stories abound.[30] The inscriptions of many Kamma Nayaks mentioned that they belong to Durjaya clan (Vamsa).[31] For instance, the inscription (1125 CE) of Pinnama Nayudu in the temple of Sagareswara in Madala village mentioned that he belonged to Durjaya clan and Vallutla Gothra.[32] Another inscription (1282 CE) in the same temple mentioned that Devineni Erra Nayudu, Kommi Nayudu and Pothi Nayudu belonged to the lineage of Buddhavarma, Durjaya clan and Vallutla Gothra.[33][34] The inscription at Ravuru mentioned that the bodyguards of Queen Rudrama Devi, Ekki Nayudu, Rudra Nayudu, Pinarudra Nayudu and Pothi Nayudu belong to Durjaya vamsa and Vallutla Gothra.[35][36]. It is worth mentioning here that many of the martial clans of Kammas belong to Vallutla Gothra.[37] Many of the Telugu Chodas of Kammanadu had relations with Eastern Chalukyas and later with Kakatiyas. According to many inscriptions and “Velugotivari Vamsavali” Kammas with surnames such as Yalampati, Sammeta, Maccha, Choda, Vasireddy, Katta, Adapa etc., belong to Choda-Chalukya ancestry.[8][38] The Vasireddy Clan had a title “Chalukya Narayana”.[39]. Historians surmised that by the end of 10th century Durjayas, Chodas, few sections of Chalukyas and Haihayas of Kammanadu merged into Kammas.[40][41].

Medieval history

Kakatiya period

Kammas grew to prominence during the Kakatiya dynasty's reign (1083-1323 CE) by also holding important positions in their army. One of the most famous commanders during the time of Rudrama Devi and Prataparudra II was Dadi Nagadeva who played a prominent role in warding off the attack of the Yadava king of Devagiri[42]. Nagadeva’s son Ganna Mantri, also called Ganna Senani or Yugandhar, was a great warrior and a patron of arts and literature. Ganna was the commander of Warangal fort. He was captured, converted to Islam and taken to Delhi along with Prataparudra.[43] Subsequently, he rose to the exalted position of 'Wazir' in Delhi durbar and was sent to rule Punjab.[44][45] Poet Maarana dedicated his Markandeya Puranam to Ganna (Malik Maqbul).[46] Nagadeva’s other sons Ellaya Nayaka and Mechaya Nayaka were also valiant fighters. Another warrior of repute was Muppidi Nayaka who went on an expedition to Kanchi, defeated the Pandya king and merged it with Kakatiya dynasty in 1316 CE. In prolonged battles with Muslims between 1296 and 1323 CE. several Kamma Nayakas perished in the defense of Warangal. The inhuman atrocities perpetrated by the Muslims on Telugu people later prompted two Kamma chieftains, Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka and Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka, who served the Kakatiya king Prataparudra, to raise the banner of revolt.[47][48] After the fall of Warangal they united the Nayaka chieftains, wrested Warangal from the Delhi Sultanate and ruled for 50 years.[49]. See: (Musunuri Nayaks)

As described above from Telugu literary sources, the social group of Kammas is thought to be basically agrarian arising from (Kapus) of Kammanadu region of the Guntur and Prakasam districts in Andhra Pradesh.[50][51]

Post-Kakatiya period

The tradition holds that the Kammas, along with Velamas, evolved out of the community of Kapus (cultivators) in the post-Kakatiya period. A popular legend collected by Edgar Thurston narrates that Kammas originated from the youngest son of a certain Belthi Reddi, who managed to recover his mother's ear-ornament (called "kamma" in Telugu) which had been appropriated by a king's minister. The other sons of Belthi Reddi are similarly said to have given rise to the other prominent caste communities of the Telugu people.[52]

Vijayanagara period

During the reign of Krishnadevaraya Kammas belonging to 37 gotras were living in the city of Vijayanagar. Kamma Nayaks formed the bulwark of the Vijayanagara army and were appointed as governors in many areas of Tamil Nadu.[53] Their role in protecting the last great Hindu kingdom of India was significant.[54]

Golkonda period

The Kammas were largely reduced by the status of peasants in the post-Kakatiya period.[55] The Vijayanagara kingdom was troubled after the battle of Tallikota in 1565. Pemmasani Nayaks, Ravella Nayaks and Sayapaneni Nayaks helped the Araviti kings in keeping the Muslims at bay. It took another 90 years to consolidate the Muslim power in Andhra country with the capture of Gandikota in 1652. Kamma nayaks migrated in large numbers to the Tamil region. During the Golkonda period, the Sayapaneni Nayaks (1626–1802) ruled Dupadu region as vassals of the Golkonda sultans.[56]

Modern history

After the decline of major kingdoms, Kammas controlled large fertile areas in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, as a legacy of their martial past. The British recognized their prominence and made them village heads (Talari) also known as Chowdary to collect taxes. The association of Kammas with the land and agriculture is legendary. The martial prowess of Kammas was put to good use to tame the lands in modern times. There are many proverbs in Telugu language which speak of the Kammas’ adeptness in agriculture and their emotional attachment to the soil.

English historians like Edgar Thurston and noted agricultural scientists like M. S. Randhawa eulogized the spirit of Kamma farmers.[58][59]. The emotional attachment of Kamma farmers to the land and soil was poignantly depicted by Tripuraneni Gopichand in a short story Mamakaram[60].

Construction of dams and barrages and establishment of an irrigation system in Godavari and Krishna river deltas by Sir Arthur Cotton was a great boon to the Kamma farmers. Availability of water and the natural propensity for hard work made the Kammas wealthy and prosperous.[61] The money was put to good use by establishing numerous schools and libraries and encouraging their children to take up modern education. Among all communities, Kammas were one of the first to take to education in large numbers.[62]. Over a period of 10 years, in Guntur District alone, 130 High schools and hostels were established by their initiative. The zamindars of Challapalli and Kapileswarapuram founded many schools and libraries. In the modern times, the pace of the growth in wealth accelerated due to their enterprise and notable achievements in business, real estate, farming, arts and movie industry, education, medicine, engineering, media and high technology.[63].

Kamma landholdings were consolidated, and their influence consequently increased, by the introduction of the ryotwari system as a replacement for the zamindari system in the 19th century.[64]

The Kammas of Southern Tamil Nadu have also excelled in the cultivation of black cotton soils and later diversified into various industrial enterprises, particularly in Coimbatore and Kovilpatti.[65][66][67][68].

In the recent past, enterprising farmers migrated to other regions such as Nizamabad, Raichur and Bellary (Karnataka), Raipur (Chattisgarh) and Sambalpur (Orissa). In the past fifty years, the enterprise of the Kammas has profoundly influenced every aspect of social, economic and political life of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and the country in general. The contribution of Kammas to the economy of the state of Andhra Pradesh is significant.

Classification

The varna system of Brahmanic ritual ranking never took hold in South Indian society outside Kerala. There were essentially three classes: Brahmin, non-Brahmin and Dalit.[69] Kammas naturally fall into the non-Brahmin class[70] Classification of social groups in the Andhra region has changed frequently as the various communities jostle for status.[71] During the British Raj, the Kammas were considered to be "upper Shudra", along with the Reddy and Velama castes, under the varna system.[72][73]

Selig Harrison said in 1956 that

Kamma lore nurtures the image of a once-proud warrior clan reduced by Reddi chicanery to its present peasant status. Reddi duplicity, recounted by Kamma historian K. Bhavaiah Choudary, was first apparent in 1323 AD at the downfall of Andhra's Kakatiya dynasty. Reciting voluminous records to prove that Kammas dominated the Kakatiya court, Chaudary suggests that the Reddis, also influential militarists at the time, struck a deal at Kamma expense with the Moslem conquerors of the Kakatiya regime. The Kammas lost their noble rank and were forced into farming.[55]

Sub-divisions

According to the census of British India (1891) there were six divisions viz., Peda Kamma, Godachatu Kamma and Illuvellani Kamma (Krishna, Guntur, Anantapur districts); Bangaru Kamma (North Arcot); Vaduga Kamma (thanjavur) and Kavali Kamma (Godavari districts)[74]. In addition, divisions such as Gandikota Kamma, Gampa Kamma and Macha Kamma also exist. In modern times these divisions have all but vanished.

Politics

Prior to the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh, creating the new state of Telangana, the Kammas and the Reddys were politically and economically dominant in the state.[2]

During the 1980s, they played a key role in state and national politics with the inception of the Telugu Desam Party by its then President Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao also called as NTR.[75]

Notable people

References

  1. ↑ Kumari, A. Vijaya; Bhaskar, Sepuri (1998). Social Change Among Balijas: Majority Community of Andhra Pradesh. M. D. Publications. p. 89. ISBN 978-8-17533-072-6.
  2. 1 2 Srinivasulu, K. (September 2002). "Caste, Class and Social Articulation in Andhra Pradesh: Mapping Differential Regional Trajectories" (PDF). London: Overseas Development Institute. pp. 3–4. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
  3. ↑ W. C. Plowden, 1883, The Indian Empire Census of 1881, Statistics of Population Vol. II., Calcutta, p. 30
  4. ↑ Statistics of population: http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/working-papers/179-caste-class-social-articulation-andhra-pradesh-india.pdf
  5. ↑ Caste,Class and Social Articulation in Andhra Pradesh: Mapping Differential Regional Trajectories, K. Sreinivasulu, Department of Political Science, Osmania University, 2002, Hyderabad, p.3
  6. ↑ Suri, K. C., 2002,Overseas Development Institute, UK: http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/working-papers/180-democratic-process-electoral-politics-andhra-pradesh-india.pdf
  7. ↑ Bhaskar, T. L. S.; Bhat, Chandrashekhar (2007). "Contextualising Diasporic Identity". In Oonk, Gijsbert. Global Indian Diasporas: Exploring Trajectories of Migration and Theory. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 108–109, 112. ISBN 978-90-5356-035-8.
  8. 1 2 Kammavari Charitra (in Telugu language) by Kotha Bhavaiah Chowdary, 1939. Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur
  9. ↑ Telugu Vignana Sarvaswamu, Volume 2, History, Telugu University, Hyderabad
  10. ↑ Telugu-English Dictionary, by V. R. Vemuri, 2003, Asian Educational Services, p. 99, ISBN 81-206-1637-5
  11. ↑ A History of Telugu Literature, Chenchaiah, B. and Bhujanga Rao, R. M., 1988, Asian Educational Services, p.50, ISBN 81-206-0313-3
  12. ↑ Buddhist Stupas of Amaravathi and Jaggayyapeta, Madras Presidency, J. Burgess, 1886, p. 110
  13. ↑ Epigraphica Indica, Vol VIII, pp. 233-236 (Chandaluru copper plate inscription of Kumara Vishnu)
  14. ↑ Epigraphica Indica, Vol XV, pp. 249-252 (Ongole copper plate inscription of Pallava king Vijaya Skandavarma)
  15. ↑ Epigraphica Indica, Vol XVIII, p. 250 (Kopparapu copper plate inscription of Pulakesi II, 7th century CE)
  16. ↑ Epigraphica Indica, Vol XVIII, p. 27 (Aluru inscription of Chalukya king Vikramaditya V, 1011 CE)
  17. ↑ Copper-plate and Stone Inscriptions of South India, A. Butterworth and V. C. Venugopal, 1905, Government Press, Madras; Sundeep Prakashan, 2006, ISBN 81-85066-63-9
  18. ↑ Velugotivari Vamsavali, English Translation by N. Venkataramanaiah
  19. ↑ Padmanayakacharitra, Sarvajna Singabhupala (in Telugu)
  20. ↑ Bhimeswara Puranamu, Srinatha, 1-31 (in Telugu)
  21. ↑ Padmanayaka Charitra by Sarvagna Singabhupala (in Telugu)
  22. ↑ Kammavari Charitra (in Telugu) by Kotha Bhavaiah Chowdary, 1939. Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur. pp. 31-32
  23. ↑ A History of the Early Dynasties of Andhradesa, c. 200-625, B. V. Krishnarao, V. R. Sastrulu, Madras, 1942, p. 370; http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ONSCAAAAIAAJ&q=dharanikota&dq=dharanikota&lr=&pgis=1
  24. ↑ The History of Andhra Country, Yashoda Devi, Gyan Publishing house, New Delhi; http://books.google.co.in/books?id=-d9IAvFOUHsC&pg=PA171&dq=dhanyakataka&lr=#PPA159,M1
  25. ↑ The History of Andhras, Durga Prasad (http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf)
  26. ↑ Nritya Ratnavali (http://www.telugupeople.com/discussion/article.asp?id=111
  27. ↑ The Castes and Tribes of H.E.H. Nizam's Dominions, S. S. Hassan, 1989, Asian Educational Services, p. 308, ISBN 81-206-0488-1
  28. ↑ Journal of Andhra History and Culture, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Inscription of Paruchuri Ketinayudu)
  29. ↑ Padmanayaka Charitra by Sarvagna Singabhupala (in Telugu)
  30. ↑ Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, R. B. Russell and R. B. H. Lai, 1995, Asian Educational Services, p. 372, ISBN 81-206-0833-X
  31. ↑ South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 243 and 317
  32. ↑ Annual Report of Madras Epigraphy Vol 38, No. 346
  33. ↑ Annual Report of Madras Epigraphy, Vol. 38, No. 348
  34. ↑ Journal of Andhra History and Culture, Vol. 1, No. 2
  35. ↑ Annual Report of Madras Epigraphy, 1916, Vol. 15, No. 333, p. 135
  36. ↑ Kakatiya inscriptions, A R #539, No. 442: http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume10/kakatiya_dynasty_2.html
  37. ↑ Kammavari Charitra, Kotha Bhavaiah Chowdary, 1939, Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur
  38. ↑ Velugotivari Vamsavali English Translation by N. Venkataramanayya
  39. ↑ Ahalyasankrandanavilasamu
  40. ↑ Andhrula Charitra, C. Virabhadra Rao (in Telugu)(http://ia331307.us.archive.org/1/items/andhrulacharitra025965mbp/andhrulacharitra025965mbp.pdf)
  41. ↑ Kammavari Charitra (in Telugu) by Kotha Bhavaiah Chowdary, 1939. Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur, pp. 10-13, 15
  42. ↑ [Inscription 421 States that Dadi Ganna-Nayaka made a gift of land http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume10/kakatiya_dynasty_1.html]
  43. ↑ Artibus Asiae, Wagoner, P. B and Rice, J. H., 2001, 61:77-117
  44. ↑ Delhi Sultanate: A political and Military History, Peter Jackson, 1999, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
  45. ↑ The Cambridge History of Islam, B. Lewis, A. K. S. Lambton and P. M. Holtp, Cambridge University Press, 1977, p 19, ISBN 0-521-29137-2
  46. ↑ Sri Marana Markandeya Puranamu, G. V. Subrahmanyam, 1984, Sahitya Academy, Hyderabad, p. 185
  47. ↑ Prolaya's Vilasa Grant; Epigraphica Indica 32: 239-268
  48. ↑ The History of Andhras, Durga Prasad (http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf), p. 168
  49. ↑ Pre-colonial India in Practice, Cynthia Talbot, 2001, Oxford University Press, pp.177-182, ISBN 0-19-513661-6
  50. ↑ Nāgabhūṣaṇaśarma, M.; Sastry, M. V.; Śēṣagirirāvu, C. (1995), History and culture of the Andhras, Telugu University, p. 80 Quote: "Next to birth and profession, it was region which accounted for sectarian sub-divisions in all the castes like those of Kammanadu being called Kamma-Brahmana, Kamma-Kapu, Kamma-Sresthi and so on."
  51. ↑ Sastry, P. V. Parabrahma (1996), Rural Studies in Early Andhra, V.R. Publication, p. 59 Quote: "The modern Kamma sect of people in Andhra desa is originally of the Kapu families hailing from Kamma nadu or Kamma rashtra of the medieval period."
  52. ↑ Talbot, Austin Cynthia (2001), Pre-colonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra, Oxford University Press, p. 206, ISBN 978-0-19803-123-9
  53. ↑ Dutt, K. I. (1926). "Kamma Commanders of the Vijayanagara Empire". Journal of the Andhra Historical Society. X: 223.
  54. ↑ Jackson, William (2005). Vijayanagara Voices. Ashgate Publishing. p. 124. ISBN 0-7546-3950-9.
  55. 1 2 Harrison, Selig S. (June 1956). "Caste and the Andhra Communists". The American Political Science Review. 50 (2): 378–404. JSTOR 1951675. (subscription required)
  56. ↑ Narayanarau, V.; Shulman, D. D.; Subrahmanyam, S. (2003). Textures of Time: Writing History in South India. Other Press LLC. p. 264. ISBN 1-59051-044-5.
  57. ↑ Gazetteer of the Nellore District: Madras District, Government Press, Madras, 1942, p.104
  58. ↑ Castes and Tribes of Southern India, 1965, Edgar Thurston.
  59. ↑ Farmers of India, 1959, M. S. Randhawa, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
  60. ↑ T. Gopichand, Telugu Kathanikalu, Sahitya Academy, New Delhi, 1979
  61. ↑ Parties, Elections and Mobilisation, K. R. Murty, 2001, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, p. 20
  62. ↑ Education and the Disprivileged, S. Bhattacharya, 2002, Orient Longman, p. 58, ISBN 81-250-2192-2
  63. ↑ Caste and the Andhra Communists, S. Harrison, APSR, Vol. 50, pp. 378-404
  64. ↑ Kumar, P. Pratap (2013). "Andhra Pradesh: Economic and social relations". In Berger, Peter; Heidemann, Frank. The Modern Anthropology of India: Ethnography, Themes and Theory. Routledge. p. 18. ISBN 9781134061112.
  65. ↑ Stein, Burton (1989). Vijayanagara. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. ISBN 0-521-26693-9.
  66. ↑ Chari, Sharad (2004). Fraternal Capital. Stanford University Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-8047-4873-X.
  67. ↑ The Voyage to Excellence, N. Amarnath, 2005, Pustak Mahal, p.122,ISBN 81-223-0904-6
  68. ↑ Rural Society in Southeast Asia, K. Gough, 1981, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 29, ISBN 0-521-04019-1
  69. ↑ Fox, Richard G. (January 1969), "Varna Schemes and Ideological Integration in Indian Society", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 11 (01): 27–45, doi:10.1017/S0010417500005132: "When recognition of a regional varna scheme has been unavoidable—such as the tripartite division into Brahmins, non-Brahmins, and Untouchables in much of the South— it has been explained in terms of an historical corruption or breakdown of the standard four-class system, rather than regarded as a functional entity in its own right."
  70. ↑ Gopi, K. N. (1978), Process of Urban Fringe Development: A Model, Concept Publishing Company, p. 35
  71. ↑ Kumar, P. Pratap (2013). "Andhra Pradesh: Economic and social relations". In Berger, Peter; Heidemann, Frank. The Modern Anthropology of India: Ethnography, Themes and Theory. Routledge. p. 14. ISBN 9781134061112.
  72. ↑ Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi (2002). Education and the disprivileged: nineteenth and twentieth century India. Orient Blackswan. p. 17. ISBN 978-81-250-2192-6.
  73. ↑ Ayres, Alyssa; Oldenburg, Philip (2002). India briefing: quickening the pace of change. M. E. Sharpe. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-7656-0813-0.
  74. ↑ The Indian Empire Census of 1881, Statistics of Population Vol. II., W. C. Plowden, 1883, Calcutta, p. 30
  75. ↑ Political Parties in South Asia, S. K. Mitra and M. Enskat, 2004, Praeger/Greenwood, p.115, ISBN 0-275-96832-4
  76. 1 2 3 4 5 "Khammas of AP have money power, so they just go get it". Retrieved 2016-09-07.

Further reading

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