Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter

A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART /ˈjuːɑːrt/), is a computer hardware device for asynchronous serial communication in which the data format and transmission speeds are configurable. The electric signaling levels and methods (such as differential signaling, etc.) are handled by a driver circuit external to the UART.

UARTs are commonly used in conjunction with communication standards such as TIA (formerly EIA) RS-232, RS-422 or RS-485. A UART is usually an individual (or part of an) integrated circuit (IC) used for serial communications over a computer or peripheral device serial port. UARTs are now commonly included in microcontrollers. A dual UART, or DUART, combines two UARTs into a single chip. Similarly, a quadruple UART or QUART, combines four UARTs into one package, such as the NXP 28L194. An octal UART or OCTART combines eight UARTs into one package, such as the Exar XR16L788 or the NXP SCC2698. A related device, the Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (USART) also supports synchronous operation.

Transmitting and receiving serial data

The universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion.^[1] At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Each UART contains a shift register, which is the fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms. Serial transmission of digital information (bits) through a single wire or other medium is less costly than parallel transmission through multiple wires.

The UART usually does not directly generate or receive the external signals used between different items of equipment. Separate interface devices are used to convert the logic level signals of the UART to and from the external signalling levels. External signals may be of many different forms. Examples of standards for voltage signaling are RS-232, RS-422 and RS-485 from the EIA. Historically, current (in current loops) was used in telegraph circuits. Some signaling schemes do not use electrical wires. Examples of such are optical fiber, IrDA (infrared), and (wireless) Bluetooth in its Serial Port Profile (SPP). Some signaling schemes use modulation of a carrier signal (with or without wires). Examples are modulation of audio signals with phone line modems, RF modulation with data radios, and the DC-LIN for power line communication.

Communication may be simplex (in one direction only, with no provision for the receiving device to send information back to the transmitting device), full duplex (both devices send and receive at the same time) or half duplex (devices take turns transmitting and receiving).

Data framing

The idle, no data state is high-voltage, or powered. This is a historic legacy from telegraphy, in which the line is held high to show that the line and transmitter are not damaged. Each character is sent as a logic low start bit, a configurable number of data bits (usually 8, but users can choose 5 to 8 or 9 bits depending on which UART is in use), an optional parity bit if the number of bits per character chosen is not 9 bits, and one or more logic high stop bits. In most applications the least significant data bit (the one on the left in this diagram) is transmitted first, but there are exceptions (such as the IBM 2741 printing terminal).

The start bit signals the receiver that a new character is coming. The next five to nine bits, depending on the code set employed, represent the character. If a parity bit is used, it would be placed after all of the data bits. The next one or two bits are always in the mark (logic high, i.e., '1') condition and called the stop bit(s). They signal the receiver that the character is completed. Since the start bit is logic low (0) and the stop bit is logic high (1) there are always at least two guaranteed signal changes between characters.

If the line is held in the logic low condition for longer than a character time, this is a break condition that can be detected by the UART.

Receiver

All operations of the UART hardware are controlled by a clock signal which runs at a multiple of the data rate, typically 8 times the bit rate. The receiver tests the state of the incoming signal on each clock pulse, looking for the beginning of the start bit. If the apparent start bit lasts at least one-half of the bit time, it is valid and signals the start of a new character. If not, it is considered a spurious pulse and is ignored. After waiting a further bit time, the state of the line is again sampled and the resulting level clocked into a shift register. After the required number of bit periods for the character length (5 to 8 bits, typically) have elapsed, the contents of the shift register are made available (in parallel fashion) to the receiving system. The UART will set a flag indicating new data is available, and may also generate a processor interrupt to request that the host processor transfers the received data.

Communicating UARTs usually have no shared timing system apart from the communication signal. Typically, UARTs resynchronize their internal clocks on each change of the data line that is not considered a spurious pulse. Obtaining timing information in this manner, they reliably receive when the transmitter is sending at a slightly different speed than it should. Simplistic UARTs do not do this, instead they resynchronize on the falling edge of the start bit only, and then read the center of each expected data bit, and this system works if the broadcast data rate is accurate enough to allow the stop bits to be sampled reliably.

It is a standard feature for a UART to store the most recent character while receiving the next. This "double buffering" gives a receiving computer an entire character transmission time to fetch a received character. Many UARTs have a small first-in, first-out FIFO buffer memory between the receiver shift register and the host system interface. This allows the host processor even more time to handle an interrupt from the UART and prevents loss of received data at high rates.

Transmitter

Transmission operation is simpler as the timing does not have to be determined from the line state, nor is it bound to any fixed timing intervals. As soon as the sending system deposits a character in the shift register (after completion of the previous character), the UART generates a start bit, shifts the required number of data bits out to the line, generates and sends the parity bit (if used), and sends the stop bits. Since full-duplex operation requires characters to be sent and received at the same time, UARTs use two different shift registers for transmitted and received characters. High performance UARTs could contain a transmit FIFO (first in first out) buffer to allow a CPU or DMA controller to deposit multiple characters in a burst into the FIFO rather than have to deposit one character at a time into the FIFO. Since transmission of a single or multiple characters may take a long time relative to CPU speeds, a UART maintains a flag showing busy status so that the host system knows if there is at least one character in the transmit buffer or shift register; "ready for next character(s)" may also be signaled with an interrupt.

Application

Transmitting and receiving UARTs must be set for the same bit speed, character length, parity, and stop bits for proper operation. The receiving UART may detect some mismatched settings and set a "framing error" flag bit for the host system; in exceptional cases the receiving UART will produce an erratic stream of mutilated characters and transfer them to the host system.

Typical serial ports used with personal computers connected to modems use eight data bits, no parity, and one stop bit; for this configuration the number of ASCII characters per second equals the bit rate divided by 10.

Some very low-cost home computers or embedded systems dispense with a UART and use the CPU to sample the state of an input port or directly manipulate an output port for data transmission. While very CPU-intensive (since the CPU timing is critical), the UART chip can thus be omitted, saving money and space. The technique is known as bit-banging.

History

Some early telegraph schemes used variable-length pulses (as in Morse code) and rotating clockwork mechanisms to transmit alphabetic characters. The first serial communication devices (with fixed-length pulses) were rotating mechanical switches (commutators). Various character codes using 5, 6, 7, or 8 data bits became common in teleprinters and later as computer peripherals. The teletypewriter made an excellent general-purpose I/O device for a small computer.

Gordon Bell of DEC designed the first UART, occupying an entire circuit board called a line unit, for the PDP series of computers beginning with the PDP-1.^[3][4] According to Bell, the main innovation of the UART was its use of sampling to convert the signal into the digital domain, allowing more reliable timing than previous circuits that used analog timing devices with manually adjusted potentiometers.^[5] To reduce the cost of wiring, backplane and other components, these computers also pioneered flow control using XON and XOFF characters rather than hardware wires.

DEC condensed the line unit design into an early single-chip UART for their own use.^[3] Western Digital developed this into the first widely available single-chip UART, the WD1402A, around 1971. This was an early example of a medium scale integrated circuit. Another popular chip was the SCN2651 from the Signetics 2650 family.

An example of an early 1980s UART was the National Semiconductor 8250. In the 1990s, newer UARTs were developed with on-chip buffers. This allowed higher transmission speed without data loss and without requiring such frequent attention from the computer. For example, the popular National Semiconductor 16550 has a 16 byte FIFO, and spawned many variants, including the 16C550, 16C650, 16C750, and 16C850.

Depending on the manufacturer, different terms are used to identify devices that perform the UART functions. Intel called their 8251 device a "Programmable Communication Interface". MOS Technology 6551 was known under the name "Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter" (ACIA). The term "Serial Communications Interface" (SCI) was first used at Motorola around 1975 to refer to their start-stop asynchronous serial interface device, which others were calling a UART. Zilog manufactured a number of Serial Communication Controllers or SCCs.

After the RS-232 COM port was removed from most IBM PC compatible computers in the 2000s, an external USB-to-UART serial adapter cable was used to compensate for the loss. A major supplier of these chips is FTDI.^[6]

Structure

A UART usually contains the following components:

• a clock generator, usually a multiple of the bit rate to allow sampling in the middle of a bit period.
• input and output shift registers
• transmit/receive control
• read/write control logic
• transmit/receive buffers (optional)
• system data bus buffer (optional)
• First-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer memory (optional)
• Signals needed by a third party DMA controller (optional)
• Integrated bus mastering DMA controller (optional)

Special transceiver conditions

Overrun error

An "overrun error" occurs when the receiver cannot process the character that just came in before the next one arrives. Various devices have different amounts of buffer space to hold received characters. The CPU or DMA controller must service the UART in order to remove characters from the input buffer. If the CPU or DMA controller does not service the UART quickly enough and the buffer becomes full, an Overrun Error will occur, and incoming characters will be lost.

Underrun error

An "underrun error" occurs when the UART transmitter has completed sending a character and the transmit buffer is empty. In asynchronous modes this is treated as an indication that no data remains to be transmitted, rather than an error, since additional stop bits can be appended. This error indication is commonly found in USARTs, since an underrun is more serious in synchronous systems.

Framing error

A "framing error" occurs when the designated "start" and "stop" bits are not found. As the "start" bit is used to identify the beginning of an incoming character, it acts as a reference for the remaining bits. If the data line is not in the expected state (hi/lo) when the "stop" bit is expected, a Framing Error will occur.

Parity error

A Parity Error occurs when the parity of the number of 1 bits disagrees with that specified by the parity bit. Use of a parity bit is optional, so this error will only occur if parity-checking has been enabled.

Break condition

A "break condition" occurs when the receiver input is at the "space" (logic low, i.e., '0') level for longer than some duration of time, typically, for more than a character time. This is not necessarily an error, but appears to the receiver as a character of all zero bits with a framing error. The term "break" derives from current loop signaling, which was the traditional signaling used for teletypewriters. The "spacing" condition of a current loop line is indicated by no current flowing, and a very long period of no current flowing is often caused by a break or other fault in the line.

Some equipment will deliberately transmit the "space" level for longer than a character as an attention signal. When signaling rates are mismatched, no meaningful characters can be sent, but a long "break" signal can be a useful way to get the attention of a mismatched receiver to do something (such as resetting itself). Unix-like systems can use the long "break" level as a request to change the signaling rate, to support dial-in access at multiple signaling rates.

UART models

UART in modems

Modems for personal computers that plug into a motherboard slot must also include the UART function on the card. The original 8250 UART chip shipped with the IBM personal computer had a one character buffer for the receiver and the transmitter each, which meant that communications software performed poorly at speeds above 9600 bits/second, especially if operating under a multitasking system or if handling interrupts from disk controllers. High-speed modems used UARTs that were compatible with the original chip but which included additional FIFO buffers, giving software additional time to respond to incoming data.

A look at the performance requirements at high bit rates shows why the 16, 32, 64 or 128 byte FIFO is a necessity. The Microsoft specification for a DOS system requires that interrupts not be disabled for more than 1 millisecond at a time. Some hard disk drives and video controllers violate this specification. 9600 bit/s will deliver a character approximately every millisecond, so a 1 byte FIFO should be sufficient at this rate on a DOS system which meets the maximum interrupt disable timing. Rates above this may receive a new character before the old one has been fetched, and thus the old character will be lost. This is referred to as an overrun error and results in one or more lost characters.

A 16 byte FIFO allows up to 16 characters to be received before the computer has to service the interrupt. This increases the maximum bit rate the computer can process reliably from 9600 to 153,000 bit/s if it has a 1 millisecond interrupt dead time. A 32 byte FIFO increases the maximum rate to over 300,000 bit/s. A second benefit to having a FIFO is that the computer only has to service about 8 to 12% as many interrupts, allowing more CPU time for updating the screen, or doing other chores. Thus the computer's responses will improve as well.

See also

• Baud
• Bit rate
• Modem
• Morse code
• Serial communication
• Serial port
• USB

References

Further reading

• Serial Port Complete: COM Ports, USB Virtual COM Ports, and Ports for Embedded Systems; 2nd Edition; Jan Axelson; Lakeview Research; 380 pages; 2007; ISBN 978-1-931-44806-2.
• Serial Programming (Wikibook).

External links

• A tutorial on the RS-232 standard, describing the definition of mark, space and their relationship with negative and positive voltages
• FreeBSD Serial and UART Tutorial, includes standard signal definitions, history of UART ICs, and pinout for commonly used DB25 connector.
• UART Tutorial for Robotics, contains many practical examples.
• UART transceiver over powerline, allows multiplex UART networking over the powerline.
• UART Protocol, a tutorial on the UART protocol explaining flow control, transmission speed, radiation hardening, powerline transceivers and reviewing terminal programs.

Technical and de facto standards for wired computer buses
General	System bus Front-side bus Back-side bus Daisy chain Control bus Address bus Bus contention Network on a chip Plug and play List of bus bandwidths
Standards	SS-50 bus S-100 bus Unibus VAXBI MBus STD Bus SMBus Q-Bus Europe Card Bus ISA STEbus Zorro II Zorro III CAMAC FASTBUS LPC HP Precision Bus EISA VME VXI VXS NuBus TURBOchannel MCA SBus VLB PCI PXI HP GSC bus InfiniBand UPA PCI Extended (PCI-X) AGP PCI Express (PCIe) Direct Media Interface (DMI) RapidIO Intel QuickPath Interconnect HyperTransport
Storage	ST-506 ESDI SMD Parallel ATA (PATA) SSA DSSI HIPPI Serial ATA (SATA) eSATA eSATAp mSATA SCSI Parallel SCSI SAS Fibre Channel SATA Express M.2
Peripheral	Apple Desktop Bus HIL MIDI Multibus RS-232 RS-422 RS-423 RS-485 DMX512-A IEEE-488 (GPIB) IEEE-1284 (parallel port) UNI/O ACCESS.bus 1-Wire D²B I²C SPI Parallel SCSI Profibus USB IEEE 1394 (FireWire) Camera Link External PCIe Thunderbolt
Audio	ADAT Lightpipe AES3 Intel HD Audio I²S MADI McASP S/PDIF TOSLINK
Portable	PC Card ExpressCard
Embedded	Multidrop bus CoreConnect AMBA Wishbone
Interfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest. Category